Ambivalent attitudes promote support for extreme political actions

Political extremism varies across people and contexts, but which beliefs will a person support through extreme actions? We propose that ambivalent attitudes, despite reducing normative political actions like voting, increase support for extreme political actions. We demonstrate this hypothesized reversal using dozens of measures across six studies (N = 13,055). The effect was robust to relevant covariates and numerous methodological variations and was magnified when people’s attitudinal or ideological positions were more polarized. It appears to occur because being conflicted about political issues can feel psychologically uncomfortable, making extreme actions more appealing. Notably, this emerged when people thought ambivalence was justified, whereas leading them to consider ambivalence unjustified suppressed the effect, suggesting that ambivalent people are coping with but not necessarily trying to reduce their ambivalence. These results highlight the interplay of affective and cognitive influences in extreme behavior, showing that beliefs people feel justifiably conflicted about can promote extremism.


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Supplementary Text Table S1 Study 6 Ambivalence is Justified vs. Unjustified Manipulations

Justified ambivalence article, Study 6a:
In the current political landscape, it is common to feel pressure to choose a side and remain steadfast in one's beliefs.However, an appreciation of the benefits of ambivalence, which refers to holding both positive and negative feelings towards a particular issue or political view, suggests that it is normal to have mixed and at times conflicting political opinions.Ambivalence can be good for both the individual who feels that way and the political process as a whole.
Advocates of this perspective argue that feeling ambivalent about political issues indicates a nuanced and well-considered approach to decision-making.Ambivalent individuals are not bound by ideology or partisan politics, but instead consider the pros and cons of both sides of an argument when forming an opinion.This approach leads to fairer and more impartial decisionmaking, as individuals are not swayed by preconceived notions or political agendas.Furthermore, holding ambivalent views demonstrates a motivation to understand the truth.Individuals who feel conflicted about their political views are likely to engage in critical thinking, researching and evaluating information to arrive at well-informed conclusions.This approach cultivates a more informed and engaged citizenry, as individuals are not simply accepting information without questioning its validity.
In conclusion, feeling ambivalent about one's political views should not be viewed as a weakness or a failure to take a stance.Instead, it is often a sign of a nuanced, well-considered, and truthseeking approach to decision-making about political issues.

Unjustified ambivalence article, Study 6a:
In the current political landscape, it is important to have a clear and consistent commitment to one's beliefs.However, for individuals who feel mixed or conflicted about their political views, this clarity is elusive.This is unfortunate because ambivalence, which refers to holding both positive and negative feelings towards a particular issue or political view, can have negative consequences for both the individual who feels that way and the political process as a whole.
Critics argue that holding ambivalent views demonstrates a lack of conviction and commitment.Ambivalent individuals seem indecisive and unreliable, making it difficult for others to trust their judgment.Furthermore, ambivalence can be perceived as, and may often truly reflect, a lack of dedication.This can lead to a decline in trust and support from others.As a result, ambivalent people are limited in how much influence they can have on others.Furthermore, feeling ambivalent about one's political views can also lead to confusion and disengagement.When individuals are unable to make a clear decision, they may become disillusioned or uninterested in the political process, making them less likely to vote and engage in other political activities.This undermines the effectiveness of politics and can lead to apathy and disengagement among the general population.
In conclusion, it is essential for individuals to have a clear and consistent commitment to their political beliefs.Ambivalence can undermine the credibility of the individual and cause the political process as a whole to stagnate due to indecision and disengagement.

Justified ambivalence article, Study 6b:
Politics is viewed by some as being reducible to relatively simple, black-and-white problems that have clear solutions.However, the truth is that many political issues are not as simple as they are made out to be.There are rarely clear-cut answers or perfect solutions to political issues, and often the choices we face are not between objectively right versus wrong.In fact, many political issues involve choices between different shades of grey.This is because political issues are often entangled with a web of competing interests, values, and perspectives.What may be beneficial for one group or goal may come at the expense of others, and finding a fully satisfying solution is often a challenging task because in some situations, each side has a valid point to make.Therefore, although politics is sometimes portrayed as being black-and-white, it is essential to understand that political issues are not straightforward, and there are seldom easy answers or simple solutions.Politics is a complex landscape of competing interests, values, and perspectives that often involves negotiating between tradeoffs and imperfect solutions.

Unjustified ambivalence article, Study 6b:
Politics is viewed by some as a complex and multifaceted arena that requires careful consideration of competing interests and values.However, the truth is that many political issues are not as complicated as they are made out to be.Political issues often have relatively clearcut, straightforward answers, and the choices we face are sometimes between objectively right versus wrong.In fact, many political issues can be reduced to relatively simple, black-and-white problems that actually have clear solutions.This is because political issues are not always about competing interests, values, or perspectives.
While some issues sometimes require compromise between different groups or objectives, often the right solution is simply obvious to anyone who looks closely at the issue.That is, in some situations, one side clearly has the more valid points to make.Therefore, although politics is sometimes portrayed as being nuanced and complex, it is essential to understand that many political issues are not actually as complicated as they might seem.Some issues are straightforward and offer clearly good solutions that should be agreed upon by everyone.

Table S1 .
Study 2 measures and results by sample.The behavioral willingness measures included in each sample and their relationships with subjective ambivalence.The object of ambivalence (e.g., about one's political beliefs) and measurement order (ambivalence vs. extreme behavioral willingness) are also specified.